#12 strength and #8 strength refers to the base charge of a detonator.

Historically detonators were made in a range of strengths, #6 for underground coal (Carrick Detonators) and #8 for initiating gelatin dynamite. With the change to less sensitive explosives a stronger detonator was required so ICI / Orica made a  #8* which is equivalent to a #12 strength DYNO detonator.

There were also #2, #3, #4 detonators but these were for testing the sensitivity of explosives and were not used for blasting.

The modern surface delays with low energy base charges probably relate to a #1 strength detonator.

1.1A is a hazard division for primary explosives.

1.1 Explosive with a mass explosion hazard.

A Primary Explosive

This applies to explosives like Lead Azide and Lead Styphnate

Explosives Class 1.1A often require special permission to ship and must be shipped wet.

The mass of TNT that would produce an equivalent explosive effect to the inventory under consideration.

The Australian Explosives Industry Safety Group (AEISG) publishes a number of Codes of Practice for the explosives industry including a code for Mobile Processing Units (MPU's).

Other codes are found at www.aeisg.org.au

A mass of angular volcanic fragments united by heat.

Vibration of the atmosphere due to the release of explosives energy.

The three main sources of airblast are rock release pulse, stemming release pulse and rock piston effect.

1. Rock release is where the face bursts due to inadequate burden.
2. Stemming release is due to rifling or cratering of the blast hole collar.
3. Rock piston is the large, low frequency, movement of air driven by the movement and swelling of the blasted rock mass.

ALANFO A mixture of ANFO and aluminium powder. Adding aluminium increases the strength. As aluminium is a fuel a reduced quantity of diesel is required.

Ammonium Nitrate (AN), meeting the requirements of UN1942.

The chemical compound ammonium nitrate, the nitrate of ammonia with the chemical formula NH₄NO₃, is a white crystalline solid at room temperature and standard pressure. It is commonly used in agriculture as a high-nitrogen fertilizer, and it has also been used as an oxidizing agent in explosives, including improvised explosive devices. It is the main component of ANFO and emulsion explosives which account for over 80% explosives used in Australia.

AN used for ANFO manufacture is referred to as PPAN meaning Porous Prilled Ammonium Nitrate.

Prilled is the term for a small aggregate of a material, most often a dry sphere, formed from a melted liquid

Porous because the prills contain voids to soak up the diesel fuel.

Amperage or Amps provided by an electrical service is the flow rate of "electrical current" that is available. 

Basic Formulas Relate Voltage, Current (Amps), & Resistance (Ohms or Ω ), Watts

Voltage = Current x Resistance

Current = Voltage / Resistance

Resistance = Voltage / Current

Watts = Volts x Amp

An ammonium nitrate based emulsion, suspension or gel which meets the requirements of UN3375 under the UN (United Nations) classification system.

Offices, workshops, stores, ablutions and the like directly associated with the operation of the ANE premises.

Any designated land, building, or area that is used for the storage, manufacture or handling of ANE. A fence may or may not form, or be part of, the boundary of the premises.

A building, in which an ANE is normally stored and/or handled and where no additional processing of the material into an explosive occurs.

A mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil with or without a dye colouring agent.

The standard mix is 5.8% Fuel Oil by weight.

As diesel has a density of 0.8 this relates to a mix of 7.5 litres of diesel to 100kg of AN.

(Definition from AS2187.0)

A pressure kettle is a device for blow loading ANFO and consists of a pressurised hopper with a valve and venturi on the bottom.

The effective use of a pressure kettle requires the pressure in the hopper and the by-pass pressure to be correctly set.

Typical settings are: By-Pass Pressure 600 KPa, Kettle Pressure 500 KPa

The angle at which the initiation front passes through the blast.

Approval by the regulatory authority having jurisdiction.

AquaMAX is a doped emulsion supplied by Downer Blasting Services

To assess competency under the Blast Management RTO persons must:

1. Hold a Statement of Attainment for the unit of competency that is being assessed or higher. For example a person holding the Shotfirer Units of Competency can assess for RIIBLA201D Support Shotfiring.

2. Hold a Statement of Attainment for ATAESS402B or TAAASS402B/C Assess Competence (or equivalent). Persons holding the qualification TAE40110 or TAA40104 will have completed these units.

3. Have minimum three years relevant industry experience

4.  Complete an 'Approved Assessor Profile' and be signed off as an approved assessor.

Other magazines, process buildings and storages of energetic materials, eg. ammonium nitrate or Class 5 dangerous goods.

Australian Explosives Code for the Transport of Explosives by Road and Rail.

This document provides guidance for all aspects of explosives transport and is called by the regulations in most states

the person who has applied for and received a licence from the Regulator after having successfully undergone police and PMV checking.

The person authorized by the regulatory authority having jurisdiction, or authorized by management to carry out a particular duty.

In a direction away from a centre point.

Ground broken beyond the design line of blast holes most recently detonated.

Overbreak on the right wall of a large underground excavation.

Backfill sheets are provided to charging operations to enable over length holes to be brough back into tolerance with the design charge depth.

A complete backfill sheet contains the following information:

Ballistic Discs provide a safe and effective way of remotely clearing hang ups and upstanding rill in draw points and stopes. When detonated a ballistic disc produces a large steel slug that is propelled at hypersonic velocity (2000-2600 m/s). The kinetic energy transferred on impact, up to 60 MegaJoules with the BD514, shatters the target area. As accurate aiming is paramount, provision for
a laser aiming attachment is fitted to all disc faces.
Ballistic Disc use in underground mining enables a true "non-stope entry" method of safely removing hang ups. Accordingly Ballistic Disc use is mandatory in several Australian underground mines. Ballistic Discs further aid safe underground operations as they permit the abortion of firing at any stage, and safe recovery of an aborted or misfired round.

Insulated wires (usually of a lighter gauge than the firing cables) used between the detonator lead wires and the firing cables or for lengthening the lead wire of an electric detonator.

A bi-directional booster is crimped onto detonating cord to increase the donor output of the cord.

The booster contains about 2 grams of either HMX or HNS explosives.

The area around a blast that must be evacuated of personnel and equipment during the firing of a blast.

The clearance zone is identified on the firing plan which will also show blast guard positions and other information relevant to the firing.

A person who may be appointed to handle the logistics of the clearance of the Blast Exclusion Zone including (but not limited to) the following:-

• Removal / relocation and preparation of equipment currently within the Blast Exclusion Zone;
• Confirming the position and location of the Blast guards;
• Completing the clearance sweeps of the Blast Exclusion.

Zone once the guards are in place and the area secured.

A blast guard is a person responsible for ensuring the blast clearance zone is evacuated prior to the firing of a blast.

The attached document provides detailed information on the practice of blast guarding.

A mat made of rope, rubber strips, polyethylene tube or similar material, placed over the area or materials being blasted to prevent the scattering of blast-generated debris.

A blast plan, should include, but not be limited to, the following:

• Location of the proposed blasting.
• Description of the proposed blasting.
• Permits / licences required for the project.
• Identification and position of the person responsible for the project including project safety and security.
• Identification and position of person who has given approval to use explosives on the project.
• Key appointments and responsibilities.
• Shotfirer’s details.
• Details of the risk management assessment.
• Details of adjacent structures or services that influence the blast design.
• Details of reports, drawings and records consulted.
• Layout plan of the blast including drilling pattern and hole depths.
• Detonation sequence / effective charge mass per delay (MIC) / powder factor.
• Type of explosive to be used and quantity required.
• Method of initiation.
• Type of firing equipment and procedures.
• Drilling procedures.
• Explosive loading and charging procedures.
• Explosive storage and handling procedures.
• Security procedures for the site and the blast, including explosives.
• Environmental considerations for airblast overpressure, ground vibration.
• Details of communication systems.
• Warning procedures.
• Traffic management plan.
• Proposed dates and times of blasting.
• Details of the exclusion zone.
• Method of notification to owners and occupiers of structures, and providers of services adjacent to the blast.
• Influence of weather.
• Loading in poor light conditions or reduced visibility.
• Cessation of explosive-related activities during electrical storms.
• Misfire management system.
• Post blast assessment and inspection procedures.
• Provision for post-blast comments.
• Signature spaces for the plan author, shotfirer and person who approves the plan.

Blast records are to be kept by the shotfirer of all blasts loaded and fired.

The various state regulations require a record of all blasts and the type and quantity of explosives used.

The blast clearance zone must also be defined and documented for surface blasts.

Australian Standard AS2187.2 Use of Explosives Appendix A provides the following guidance:

A3 BLAST RECORDS
Details of the blast should be taken and maintained, including but not limited to the following:
(a) Environmental conditions at the time of the blast.
(b) Monitoring equipment including type, serial number and location.
(c) Details of measurements recorded during the blast.
(d) Details of flyrock or fly.
(e) Details of incidents and complaints.
(f) Comment on the results of the blast.
(g) Proposed modification to the blast plan for future shots.

The blast report is the record of blast firing.

Details of the blast should be taken and maintained, including but not limited to the following:

• Drill pattern, product loaded (type and quantity) initiation sequence.
• Environmental conditions at the time of the blast.
• Monitoring equipment including type, serial number and location.
• Details of measurements recorded during the blast.
• Details of flyrock or fly.
• Details of incidents and complaints.
• Comment on the results of the blast.
• Proposed modification to the blast plan for future shots.

An area including all holes to be loaded plus such as required for safe loading operations.

Certain high explosives, such as those consisting primarily of ammonium nitrate, in which none
of the ingredients are classified as an explosive and which normally require a booster for initiation.

A Blasting Ohm Meter is a test device for checking circuits containing electric detonators.

A blasting ohm meter has an output limited to below the no fire current of standard electric detonators.

BlastPED has been developed as a safer alternative to traditional safety fuse and cable based firing systems. This radio based remote blasting system allows personnel to be away from the blast area, reduces the number of misfires, and eliminates the need for expensive blasting cabling networks.

• The BlastPED System operates off the existing PED Transmission System and only requires a software upgrade to operate.
• BlastPED has been developed to eliminate the high cost of maintaining the integrity of underground blasting cables. By eliminating these cables, costs are reduced on maintenance and lost production due to misfires.
• While the BlastPED system is extremely secure, it is also simple to operate for the authorised personnel. The software is similar to the PED operating software, PEDCALL; therefore personnel do not need to learn a new system.
• The actual BlastPED receiver itself is easy to connect and operate. The user connects the firing cable, ensures the BlastPED has synchronised, and then turns the key. It is then up to the PEDCALL operator to enter the ARM & BLAST command from security disk and transmit the messages, once the area has been cleared of personnel and permission has been received to fire.
• For safety reasons, two seconds after firing the BlastPED automatically locks out. The unit will remain locked until it is manually reset by turning the safety key to the “SAFE” position.

BLASTPLAN-PRO is a graphically based initiation design and simulation package for Shotfirers and Drill and Blast Engineers.

A free, fully functional system is available for download at www.blastplan.com.au

A blended explosive generally refers to a mixture of ammonium nitrate and emulsion. A range of blends are available from straight ANFO through a 50/50mix to straight Emulsion.

Blends containing more ANFO than Emulsion are known as Heavy ANFO's or HANFO

Blends containing more Emulsion than ANFO are known as Doped Emulsion

Blends containing more than 40% Emulsion have good water resistance and where Emulsion content is over 50% the product is considered suitable for loading into fully wet holes.

Blends containing more than 50% Emulsion generally need to be chemically gassed for sensitivity.

A block slide is a translational slide in which the moving mass consists of a single unit or a few closely related units that move downslope as a relatively coherent mass.

Resembling a block in shape.

A cap-sensitive explosive with a high VOD used generally in small quantities to rapidly attain and maintain a high rate of detonation through the main charge.
Generally refers to a cast booster containing Pentolite.

Electric detonator for firing from the bottom of a perforating gun.

May be fluid sensitive of fluid resistive

A pattern of holes adopted for blasting to a new level below an existing floor or below existing surface mining.

The ability of an explosive to break or shatter rock by shock or impact as distinct from gas pressure.
The shattering effect of the energy released in an explosion.

The explosive strength value of a unit volume of an explosive material expressed against a standard reference such as ANFO.

A blast hole which has been enlarged (chambered) to accommodate extra explosive over a portion of its length (usually at the bottom) by exploding a small charge.

The burden is the distance between a blasthole which is to be fired and the nearest void or free space.

Note that two burdens are defined, the drilled burden as shown in the diagram and the dynamic burden which is the true burden at the instant the hole fires.

The dynamic burden is influenced by both the drilled burden and the delay timing.

The burn, or parallel hole, cut relies on larger diameter uncharged holes to provide the initial void to fire into.

These ‘reamer’ holes have limited volume so the burn cut starts with firing holes on very small burdens to ‘nibble’ the rock out until sufficient void and a second free face is created.

The initial holes pulverise the small amount of rock in the cut and then use the high pressure gases to clear the void. Unlike bench or stripping blasting the broken rock must undergo a change of direction and be squirted out the narrow cut area. This process takes some time and is the reason for the use of ‘Long Period’ (LP) delays.

As a second free face and void is developed blasting transitions to stripping geometries with maximum burdens and sufficient relief.

The burn cut requires a high degree of drilling accuracy to be reliable and there is a trend toward machine guidance systems on drilling machines to optimise drill accuracy.

Whilst these have been shown to be very effective in maximising blast effectiveness, and have been widely adopted into construction tunnelling, they have had limited acceptance in mine development due to operator resistance and maintenance issues.

The distance that the initiation system has functioned in front of the blast firing.

Any portion of a drill hole or blast hole left after blasting.
NOTE: It could contain some unexploded material.

A container on a vehicle or at the work site for holding daily requirements of explosives.

Under the AEC a category 2 load for the transport of explosives is up to 5000 detonators and 250 kg of explosives.

The charge carrier is a metal tube with spaced holes to accept perforating charges.

The charge carrier sits inside the gun body after loading. Picture below shows charge carrier being extracted from the gun body.

The area isolated by the nominated shotfirer to manage interaction during the loading of blasts.
This will include all holes to be charged plus a margin.

The charge site is to be demarcated by barriers which can include:

• Physical barriers, rills and windrows
• Visual barriers, signs and flagging tapes
• Communication, notice boards and shift start communications

Standard deviation expressed as a percentage of the mean.

The ground immediately surrounding the opening of a drill hole.

In underground terminology the collar may also refer to the uncharged length of the blast hole as below.

The charging of a drill hole with a continuous charge.

Those groups of explosives which can be stowed or carried together without significantly increasing either the probability of an accident or, for a given quantity, the magnitude of the effects of such an accident. On this criterion, explosives have been divided into a number of compatibility groups, each denoted by a code letter from A to L (excluding I), N and S.

(For further information see the Australian Dangerous Goods Code or the Australian Code for the Transport of Explosives by Road and Rail.)

For commercial blasting explosives the relevant compatibility groups are:

• D - Secondary explosives, may burn may explode
• B - Primary explosives, will explode
• S - Packaging contains the effects of any explosion

Notes:

It is because D (secondary explosives) and B (primary explosives) cannot be stored together (incompatible) that requires separate HE and Detonator magazines.

The Hazard Division is often used with compatibility group. Hazard division refers to the type of explosion hazard that exists. The Hazard Divisions that are relevant to shotfirers are:

• 1 - Mass explosion hazard
• 4 - No significant risk of a mass explosion hazard

Typical codes and examples are shown below:

The authority having jurisdiction for administering legislation covering the manufacture, transport, storage and handling of dangerous goods and / or explosives within a particular State or Territory. There may be more than one authority in an ANE supply chain.

A person who has acquired through training, qualification, experience or a combination of these, the knowledge and skill enabling that person to correctly perform the task.

A compliance audit is a comprehensive review of an organization's adherence to defined policies, procedures and guidelines. Audit reports evaluate the strength and thoroughness of compliance preparations, security policies, user access controls and risk management procedures over the course of a compliance audit

A specially designed portable source of electrical energy used to fire electric detonators.

Exel™ Connectadet™ Detonators are signal tube based detonators designed to control the millisecond delay sequence from hole to hole, across the surface of a blast.

The presence of an alert and authorised person or the continuous monitoring by video or electronic surveillance.

CPAN is chemically pure ammonium nitrate used for the manufacture of emulsion.

PPAN is porous prilled ammonium nitrate used for doping emulsion blends and the manufacture of ANFO.
PPAN contains voids that reduce the density to around 0.8

Crank lines are direction lines marked on the backs and floor to give guidance to the jumbo operator when turning corners.

Creating the pit left by an explosion.

A credible evacuation scenario is one with a high likelihood that within 45 minutes of the evacuation being initiated there is no person in a building inside Protected Works Class B distance and no person in the open inside Protected Works Class A distance. (Note that 45 minutes is the worst case – the target evacuation timeframe is 30 minutes.) Whether evacuation is credible can only be assessed on a site-specific basis. Refer Appendix D.

Critical Density is defined for mechanically sensitised explosives.

This is the density above which detonation fails. The failure is due to insufficient gas bubble to create hot spots when impacted by a shock wave.

Critical diameter is the minimum physical size a charge of a specific explosive must be to sustain its own detonation wave.

To determin the critical diameter a series of charges of smaller and smaller diameters are fired until difficulty in detonation wave propagation is observed.

A charge with a critical diamter more than the physical diameter of the charge will fail to maintain detonation.

A machine system which has been assessed to present unacceptable consequences if the machine or its protective system should fail.
This includes all failures or malfunctions, which could lead to danger to life or significant harm to any person or to the environment.

When emulsion explosives age the Ammonium Nitrate solution crystallises out. This occurs when the AN salts solidify and the product feel becomes gritty.

Crystallisation reduces the sensitivity of emulsions.

A Dangerous Goods Officer (DGO) is appointed by the competent authority to administer and enforce the Dangerous Goods Legislation.

dBL or decibel linear peak is the maximum reading in decibels (dB) obtained using the "P" time – weighting characteristic as specified in AS 1259.1 – 1990 with all frequency weighted networks inoperative.

dBL is the scale used for measuring blasting overpressure.

dBA is weighted for human response (high frequencies and low frequencies beyond the range of hearing are not used) and is not used in the recording of blasting noise and overpressure. dBA is used to measure noise levels that affect hearing.

A dead blow hammer is a specialized mallet helpful in minimizing damage to the struck surface and in controlling striking force with minimal rebound from the striking surface. The head of these hammers are commonly hollow and filled with sand or lead shot, which both absorbs the impact of a strike and concentrates all of the energy of the blow in a focused point.

The operation of a pump when there is no flow due to the outlet or discharge line being closed or blocked.

Charges placed above a base charge at preselected intervals and which are completely separated from the base charge and each other.

Decomposition

The separation of a substance into simpler substances or basic elements. Decomposition can be brought about by exposure to heat, light, or chemical or biological activity.

The chemical decomposition of an explosive may take years, days, hours, or a fraction of a second. The slower processes of decomposition take place in storage and are of interest only from a stability standpoint. Of more interest are the two rapid forms of decomposition, deflagration and detonation.

A decoupled explosive is one that does not fill the blast hole. Decoupling is achieved by loading packages or tubes of explosives of a smaller diameter than the drill hole.

Decoupling is used to reduce the energy delivered by a blast hole. Both the reduced amount of explosives and the air-gap around the product are effective in reducing blast hole pressures.

Decoupled charges are commonly used when presplitting with drill holes up to 115mm in diameter.

Typical continuous packaged explosives loaded as a decoupled charge into a presplit.

Deflagration is a term describing subsonic combustion propagating through heat transfer; hot burning material heats the next layer of cold material and ignites it. Most "fire" found in daily life, from flames to explosions, is deflagration. Deflagration is different from detonation, which is supersonic and propagates through shock.

 Deflagration is a rapid high energy release combustion event that propagates through a gas or an explosive material at subsonic speeds, driven by the transfer of heat.

A detonator which contains a delay device designed to fire at a fixed interval after ignition.

A pyrotechnic substance contained within a metal jacket which causes a delay between the instant application of energy
and the time of detonation of the base charge of the detonator.

The lapse of time between the application of a firing signal and the detonation of the base charge of a delay detonator.

Combination of delay elements within a detonator.

Where hole B requires hole A to have fired to provide the necessary relief then hole B is dependent on Hole A.

A flexible cord with a solid core of high explosives, commonly PETN.

A joiner to connect detonating cord.

Contains about 2 grams of HMX explosive

A shockwave driven reaction at a velocity great than the speed of sound in the medium.

A detonator is a device used to trigger an explosive device. Detonators can be chemically, mechanically, or electrically initiated, the latter two being the most common.

 The commercial use of explosives uses non-electric or electric detonators. Many detonators' primary explosive is a material called Lead Azide pressed into place above the base charge, usually PETN.

 Delay detonators have a pyrotechnic delay train above the primary charge. This provides a time delay between the firing of the downline and the detonation of the base charge.

A term applied to any explosive which can be reliably initiated in the unconfined state by a number 8 detonator.

A blast hole which has had water removed using an in-hole pump or other mechanical means.

Typical dewatering truck fitted with submersible pump.

Direct supervision is a term that is used to refer to situations in which a supervisor is present at all times. The supervisor oversees activities as they occur and provides constant direction, feedback, and assistance. For some types of workplaces, direct supervision is required for safety and health reasons.

A test for direct supervision is that the supervisor is constantly aware of what the supervised person is doing and is able to immediately communicate direction (such as Stop That Now!!)

The preferred direction in which the blasted rock mass moves under influence of the blast – at right angles to the ‘angle of initiation’.

A form of misfire in which some explosive is left undetonated as a result of an adjacent explosion, eg. separation of charge by ground movement or severance of the initiating line.

One of the six divisions into which explosives are subdivided as follows:

Division 1.1 Explosives - Substances and articles which have a mass explosion hazard (a mass explosion is one which affects almost the entire load virtually instantaneously).

Division 1.2 Substances and articles which have a projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard.

Division 1.3 Substances and articles which have a fire hazard and either a minor blast hazard or a minor projection hazard, or both, but not a mass explosion hazard.

Division 1.4 Substances and articles which present no significant hazard.

Division 1.5 Explosives - Very insensitive substances which have a mass explosion hazard. This division comprises substances which have a mass explosion hazard but are so insensitive that there is very little probability of initiation or transition from burning to detonation under normal conditions of transport.

Division 1.6 Articles containing extremely insensitive explosives.

NOTE: For a complete evaluation of these divisions see AS 1216.

Division 5.1 Oxidisers - Substances which, while not combustible, may by readily liberating oxygen, cause or contribute to the combustion of other material, and have been classified as Class 5.1 by the appropriate regulatory authority. These substances would be expected to fail the UN test for determining whether a material is a Class 1 explosive.

Hazard Division and Compatibility Group are the key descriptors used for storage and transport classification.

The following are typical for commercial explosives

In terms of explosives and blasting:

The 'donor' is the first part of the Donor-Receptor relationship that delivers energy to the receptor.

The key factor of the donor is the amount of energy provided. This may be measured in terms of equivalent mass of TNT.

The 'receptor' is the second part of the Donor-Receptor' relationship that accepts energy from the donor and, if sensitive enough, will then detonate.

On detonation the receptor becomes the donor to the next part of the explosives chain.

The Donor-Receptor relationship may be summarised as:

For reliable propagation the output of the donor must exceed the sensitivity of the receptor.

The Donor-Receptor relationship is key to understanding propagation and failures.

Doped Emulsion is a bulk explosive consisting of a blend of Emulsion with up to 50% AN prill added.

The addition of prill increases the heave componenet of the blend.

A blast hole containing two priming units, usually placed one near the top and one near the bottom of the blast hole.

Where, on a vertical drill pattern, a half spaced angled row is drilled to provide energy into the toe area of the front row.

A length of detonating cord or signal tube by which a Primer is lowered into a blast hole and which is the means of conducting the initiating signal down the blast hole.

A hole prepared for the insertion of an explosive charge.

A plan showing the layout of holes to be drilled for blasting.

A blast hole which contains no detectable water.

The operation of a pump when there is no flow due to its inlet being closed, blocked or empty, or any other physical condition where the material being pumped is prevented from flowing into the pump.

Airborne particulate matter ranging in diameter from 10 to 50 microns.

Water that is in motion (i.e. flowing water).

A blast hole may be considered to contain dynamic water where the recharge rate is more than 1 m per hour.
Holes containing dynamic water cannot be dewatered and should be loaded with a pumped, water resistant product.

The exploding-bridgewire detonator (EBW, also known as exploding wire detonator) is a type of detonator used to initiate the detonation reaction in explosive materials, similar to a blasting cap because it is fired using an electric current. EBWs use a different physical mechanism than blasting caps, using more electricity delivered much more rapidly, and explode in a much more precise timing after the electric current is applied, by the process of exploding wire method.

EBW Detonation Construction (typical)

Diagonal line of blastholes in a staggered pattern.

Thrown out violently.

A detonator designed for, and capable of, initiation by means of an electric current.

The electric current is generally supplied by a Condensor Exploder.

An Electronic Delay Detonator (EDD) consists of a conventional base chage detonator with a programmable initiating module inserted.

Electronic detonators look similar to electric detonators but have a plastic connection on the end of the leg wires rather than being shorted and sheathed.

Nonelectric detonator complete with delay train components, before assembly onto signal tube.

As defined in the Australian Code for the Transport of Explosives by Road and Rail (known as the AEC Code).

Explosives consisting of droplets of a saturated aqueous solution containing oxidizing salts, suspended in an oil/wax matrix, and other additives.
They can be either cap or non-cap sensitive, depending on their composition.

Emulsion explosives consist of small droplets of water containing dissolved AN surrounded by a fuel phase. These are of the water in oil type.

Water in oil emulsions are water resistant because the oil phase covers and protects the water phase from being diluted by external water. 

Emulsion explosives can be both bulk and packaged.

Equivalent void is the amount of void required to pull a development round using a parallel cut with a single empty or void hole. This may be estimated using the following graph

This shows that for a 3m advance in hard ground a single reamer hole of 125mm would be sufficient.

Once the equivalent void is estimated the equal void using smaller holes can be used in the design.

Any documented and reasonable loss caused by such things as product density changes, spillage, damage to packaging, calibration variances, effects of humidity etc.

Explicit knowledge (also expressive knowledge) is knowledge that has been captured in some tangible form and can be readily articulated, codified, stored and accessed. It can be easily transmitted to others. Most forms of explicit knowledge can be stored in certain media.

Examples of explicit knowledge include:

 - Procedures, work instructions, operating standards

 - Checklists and audit tools

 - Training and assessment material.

The strength of an explosive expressed against a standard reference, eg. ANFO.

Means any of the following events involving an explosive -

(a) an explosive is, or appears to have been, lost or stolen;

(b) an accidental explosion, fire or spillage;

(c) the death of or an injury to a person;

(d) unexpected damage to property;

(e) an event, including a misfire, with the potential to cause any of the events mentioned in
paragraphs (a) to (d), other than an event that normally happens when handling or using an explosive.

A specially constructed store which is used exclusively for keeping explosives. Generally must be licensed by the regulator.

An explosives management plan is the overarching document that describes the manner in which explosives are to be managed on site.

The required elements of an explosives management plan can be found in the following audit tool.

Exposed gun systems, with the individual shaped charges sealed in pressure-tight protective capsules mounted on a carrier strip or links that are exposed to the well environment. 

Exposed Gun Assembley (DNES)

Detonator for Exposed Gun System

A location that may be affected by an explosion somewhere else.

An unintended electrical current from a source other than the firing device which could initiate a detonator including stray currents,
induced currents, static electricity and radio frequency energy.

Nonel EZ Dets are surface delays produced by Dyno Nobel using standard Ensign Bickford surface delay technology.

EZ Dets are packed in both 1.1B and 1.4B configuration

The cause of all accidental detonations:

Friction

Impact

Static

Heat

Fireline is an Oil Field detonating cord from Dyno Nobel. There are a number of different types available with RDX, HMX and HNS coreloads depending on temperature requirements.

Heavy duty insulated wires used to extend an electric blasting circuit to the firing point.

The time period during which a blast may be fired. Planned firing time will be communicated to any person who may be affected by the blast.
The actual firing time is after the clearance is completed (handover from blast controller to shotfirer) and all controls are in place to manage the safe initiation of the shot.

An explosives magazine constructed in accordance with AS 2187.1 in a manner which precludes relocation to another site.

Of a flammable liquid is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mixture in air.

A detonator that will not fire in the presence of a liquid. Used to prevent 'wet firing' of a perforation gun.

Rock that is projected outside the blast clearance zone or outside the site limits must be classed as flyrock.

Factors affecting

Jointed and fissured rocks are more prone to fly rock than strong homogeneous rock. But massive rocks require more charge to achieve good fragmentation and hence cause more problems.

Explosives

Explosives having more Bubble energy throw out more fly rock than the ones where strain energy dominates.

Blast Design

Blasting parameters like burden, spacing, charge per hole, stemming, and delay interval play an important role in the throw of the blast. Burden should be selected to take into account the crater effect where in rocks get thrown out from cavities or weak zones in the bench. There should also be adequate delay between rows of holes to allow room for the rock to swell and displace previously blasted material.

The primary sources of flyrock are face bursting, rifling and cratering.

Foreign Bodies (Also known as Tramp Material) not intended to be present in a process (such as bolts, nuts, gravel, etc), that can have an adverse effect on the process and may cause an undesired event or deviation from the design intent.

A formal risk assessment will contain, as a minimum, the following components:

• Step by step description of all the activities undertaken in the task
• A list of the identified hazards or risks associated with each of the steps.
• A description of the consequence of an adverse outcome.
• An estimate of the liklihood or frequency, from never to always.
• An estimated rating of the risk consequence, from insignificant to catastrophic.
• An overall risk rating, Low, Moderate, High, Extreme, generally guided by a risk cube.
• Existing and Addiitonal controls to manage the identified risks.
• Signoff by the risk team

Example of completed Formal Risk Assessment.

Example of Risk Cube to rate risk.

The Fortan™ Advantage Bulk System heavy ANFO blends is specifically designed for difficult blasting applications found in open cut hard rock mining.

Fortan™ Advantage is designed to increase explosive energy in dry blastholes, however the higher density emulsion blend of Fortan™ Advantage 50 can be used in dewatered blast holes.

The AN content enables high heave to be achieved. It is not suitable for ground containing reactive sulphide.

The size distribution of material left in the muck pile after the blast.
An increase in fragmentation corresponds to a higher percentage of rock fragments passing through a particular aperture size.

A face or void aligned at the end of the rows of the blast.
The free end provides holes on the end of the rows with relief in two directions, to the face and to the end.

Friction sensitivity testing can be completed using the BAM Friction apparatus developed by the German Federal Institute for Testing and Materials (BAM). The test is used to measure the sensitivity of test materials to frictional stimuli. The test is a part of UN Test Series 3 which is sued to assess the ignition sensitivity of suspected explosive materials. A 10mm3 sample is spread on a porcelain plate and the plate is then dragged under a weighted porcelain peg. The force on the peg is varied and the limiting friction load is determined as the lowest force for which a flash, flame, or explosion is observed. As many as 60 trials may be performed, and therefore approximately 1 cubic centimeter (cc) of sample may be required.

Fume is the general term for toxic gases produced by blasting.

NOx Fume produced from a surface blast.

The common fumes are carbon monoxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx)

The group of gases known as Oxides of Nitrogen or NOx, of which the most common are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), are often found as by-products in the post-blast gases of ammonium nitrate-based explosives. Together, these gases are loosely referred to as "NOx". Nitric oxide is invisible, but nitrogen dioxide ranges from yellow to dark red depending on the concentration and size of the gas cloud. These gases are toxic.

There are a number of causes for fume generation. These include:

• Explosives delivered into the blasthole with poor Oxygen Balance
• Lack of confinement in soft ground
• Loading into wet ground
• Dynamic desensitisation

The attached file provides detailed information on fume generation and management.

The combination of bridge wire and pyrotechnic substances which when subjected to electric current provides ignition to the detonator.

An inflatable bladder used to block off a blast hole and support explosives or stemming.

A geophone is a device that converts ground movement (velocity) into voltage.

Geophones typically comprise a spring-mounted magnetic mass moving within a wire coil to generate an electrical signal. The response of a coil/magnet geophone is proportional to ground velocity.

Geophones for recording blasting vibration should be able to record from 0.1mm/sec to 300mm/sec and over a frequency range from 4.5 Hz to 250 Hz.

Geophones require annual calibration by an approved testing station (NATA) to ensure they continue to accurately record ground vibration.

There are a number of common failure modes relating to rock slope stability.

These are:

• Plane failure
• Wedge failure
• Rock fall failure
• Rock topple failure
• Rotational failure
• Block slide failure

Pertaining to heat energy extracted from reservoirs in the earth’s interior.

Grams per metre. Common expression of core loading of detonating cords. (1 gm/m = 4.7 grains/foot).

Grains per foot is a measure of the explosives loading in detonating cord. The term is in imperial units and cord from North America is often rated in these units.

A grain is a unit of weight with 1 gram = 15.43 grains.

The conversion from grams per meter to grains per foot is:

1 gram per meter = 4.7 grains per foot.

Oscillatory movement of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves.

Ground vibration is typically measured as a velocity of ground motion in millimeters per second using a seismograph.

A seismograph consists of a data recorder connected to a geophone. Geophones are devices that convert ground movement into voltage using a moving magnet and coil arrangement.

Where additional blastholes are drilled between those on the designed pattern to increase energy along the row.

A statement of the class, division and compatibility group to which an explosive has been assigned in accordance with the Australian Code for the Transport of Explosives by Road and Rail (known as the AE Code).

The main hazard classifications for explosives are:

1.1 Mass explosion hazard. If any part of the inventory detonates the bulk of the inventory will sympathetically detonate.

1.4 No risk of a mass explosion. Should part of the inventory detonate there is no risk of the remainder sympathetically detonating.

Heavy ANFO is a blend of ANFO with up to 50% emulsion added.

Adding emulsion replaces some of the air pockets between the prills and increases the density, energy and water resistance whilst reducing sensitivity.

Heavy ANFO is sensitised by the remaining air gaps between and within the AN prills and does not generally require chemical gassing.

Heavy ANFO is generally to thick to pump and must be augered into blastholes.

An area of land measuring 100m by 100m.

Total area of 10,000 square meters. Equivalenet to about 2.5 acres

Hertz (abbreviated: Hz) is the standard unit of measurement used for measuring frequency. Since frequency is measured in cycles per second, one hertz equals one cycle per second.

Hertz is used commonly used to measure wave frequencies, such as sound waves, light waves, and radio waves. For example, the average human ear can detect sound waves between 20 and 20,000 Hz. Sound waves close to 20 Hz have a low pitch and are called "bass" frequencies. Sound waves above 5,000 Hz have a high pitch and are called "treble" frequencies

Human hearing can pick up sounds at frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz

Ground vibration from blasting occurs over a wide range of frequencies.

Hierarchy of hazard control is a system used in industry to minimize or eliminate exposure to hazards. It is a widely accepted system promoted by numerous safety organizations. This concept is taught to managers in industry, to be promoted as standard practice in the workplace. Various illustrations are used to depict this system, most commonly a triangle.

The hierarchy of hazard controls are, in order of decreasing effectiveness:

Elimination

Eliminating the hazard—physically removing it—is the most effective hazard control. For example, if employees must work high above the ground, the hazard can be eliminated by moving the piece they are working on to ground level to eliminate the need to work at heights.

Substitution

Substitution, the second most effective hazard control, involves replacing something that produces a hazard (similar to elimination) with something that does not produce a hazard—for example, replacing lead based paint with acrylic paint. To be an effective control, the new product must not produce another hazard. Because airborne dust can be hazardous, if a product can be purchased with a larger particle size, the smaller product may effectively be substituted with the larger product.

Engineered controls

The third most effective means of controlling hazards is engineered controls. These do not eliminate hazards, but rather isolate people from hazards. Capital costs of engineered controls tend to be higher than less effective controls in the hierarchy, however they may reduce future costs. For example, a crew might build a work platform rather than purchase, replace, and maintain fall arrest equipment. "Enclosure and isolation" creates a physical barrier between personnel and hazards, such as using remotely controlled equipment. Fume hoods can remove airborne contaminants as a means of engineered control.

Administrative controls

Administrative controls are changes to the way people work. Examples of administrative controls include procedure changes, employee training, and installation of signs and warning labels (such as those in the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System). Administrative controls do not remove hazards, but limit or prevent people's exposure to the hazards, such as completing road construction at night when fewer people are driving.

Personal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes gloves, respirators, hard hats, safety glasses, high-visibility clothing, and safety footwear. PPE is the least effective means of controlling hazards because of the high potential for damage to render PPE ineffective. Additionally, some PPE, such as respirators, increase physiological effort to complete a task and, therefore, may require medical examinations to ensure workers can use the PPE without risking their health.

Blasting which is carried out in material at a temperature of 100°C or greater.

Point of impact on receptor from donor, typically related to shock tube.

Hit mark from properly functioning low energy surface delay on shock tube.

Cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine, a high explosive used in the core loading of shock / signal tube and in high temperature applications.

HMX, also called octogen, is a powerful and relatively insensitive nitroamine high explosive, chemically related to RDX. 

The molecular structure of HMX consists of an eight-membered ring of alternating carbon and nitrogen atoms, with a nitro group attached to each nitrogen atom. Because of its high molecular weight, it is one of the most potent chemical explosives manufactured

Hexanitrostilbene (HNS), also called JD-X, is a heat resistant high explosive developed at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in the 1960s.

HNS boasts a higher insensitivity to heat than TNT, and like TNT it is very insensitive to impact.

A flexible plastic tube which is placed into a blast hole before product is loaded into the tube, providing protection from water or broken ground.

A plastic funnel which is placed in the collar of a hole, allowing product to be loaded, but preventing fallback of dirt or water ingress.

Material of a temperature of between 55°C and 100°C.

An explosive is considered to be impact sensitive if is can be shown to detonate under exposure to the types of impacts found in normal mining operations.

This would include impact from ground engaging tools (loader and dozer teeth) and drilling operations, crushing between rocks, grinding in a crusher and the like.

It does not include being struck by high velocity (supersonic) projectiles.

Impact sensitivity testing can be completed using the BAM Fall Hammer apparatus developed by the German Federal Institute for Testing Materials (BAM). Impact energy is imparted to a 40mm3 sample by means of a falling weight. The limiting impact energy is determined as the lowest energy at which a flash, flame, or explosion is observed. The test is used to assess the sensitivity of the test material to drop-weight impact. The BAM Fallhammer test is a part of UN Test Series 3 which is used to assess the ignition sensitivity of suspected explosive materials. As many as 54 trials may be performed and therefore approximately 3 cubic centimeters (cc) of sample may be required.

Impact sensitive products are known to have detonated under moderate impacts such would commonly occur in a drill and blast operation.

Sources of impact include drilling, machine excavation, rock crushing and the like.

Whilst there are products such as ANFO which are not considered impact sensitive there is always a potential, however small, for abuse of explosives to lead to adverse effects.

In its original position or place.

Relates to goods which when mixed or otherwise brought into contact with each other, are likely to interact and increase risk because of the interaction.

Emulsion that has been rendered less sensitive to reactive ground through the addition of inhibiting chemical.
Inhibited explosives are generally less energetic than standard products.

Blasting components which provide the transmission of signal, control of delay timing and the initial explosive energy within the blast hole.

Hard copy or electronic plan showing all the blast hole positions and the initiation system with all connections and products specified.
The initiation plan may also show the toe position where multiple angle holes are loaded as well as the blast hole firing times.

BlastPlan is the premier initiation design application available. www.blastplan.com.au

The location of the first hole in a blast to fire. Also the point at which the lead in line is attached to the pattern.

Is the delay time between rows.

Is the delay time between holes within a row.

The plastic clip on a nonelectric detonator to enable conneciton to detonating cord.

Job safety analysis (JSA), also known as job hazard analysis (JHA), is a safety management tool in which the risks or hazards of a specific job in the workplace are identified, and then measures to eliminate or control those hazards are determined and implemented.

The JSA process begins with identification of the potential hazards or risks associated with a particular job. Once the hazards are understood, the consequences of those hazards are then identified, followed by control measures to eliminate or mitigate the hazards.

The end result of a JSA is an easy to understand document that can be shared with workers as part of pre-job and safety meetings, and/or included as part of worker job descriptions. The JSA process can be used to help refine safe work procedures described in safety manuals or standard operating procedures, and the JSA document can serve as a useful tool in training new employees.

One joule is defined as the amount of energy exerted when a force of one newton is applied over a displacement of one meter. One joule is the equivalent of one watt of power radiated or dissipated for one second.

In different layers.

Pb(N3)2

High explosive, readily initiated. Used as a primary explosive in detonators.
Reacts instantly from moderate levels of F.I.S.H. to full velocity detonation.

Lead azide is highly sensitive and usually handled and stored under water in insulated rubber containers. It will explode after a fall of around 150 mm.

Lead Azide is a white to buff coloured granular substance although it is often mixed with graphite to reduce friction sensitivity making it dark gey to black in appearance

Lead Azide is the most common primary explosive used in detonators although Lead Styphnate has also been used.

The wires, usually paired, permanently attached to an electric detonator.

A length of shock tube terminating at one end with a detonator and the other end factory sealed.

Used in place of a firing line to initiate a blast from a remote location.

Single use only.

A 300 meter lead in line.

Lifter pipes are short lengths of poly pipe inserted into lifter holes immediately after drilling to prevent drill cuttings and mud from blocking them.

Lifter pipe is usually cut from 'blue stripe' poly pipe.

The mass of explosive in kilograms per linear metre charged in a blast hole of a given diameter.

The area under the direct control and authority of the shotfirer from the time charging of explosives begins until the area is declared safe.
Also referred to as ‘Charge Site’ or ‘Charge Area’. The load area includes shots being loaded or about to be loaded that have been demarcated by the appropriate barricades. The load area also includes any shots that are sleeping

Load or Charge rule define how holes are to be loaded based on the condition of the hole (depth, water, wet walls).

When applied to charge patterns, charge rules create hole specific load definitions describing all the explosives and inert decks and the in-hole initiation system for all holes in the charge pattern.

Charge rules are derived from charge standards. Local copies of charge rules are saved against charge patterns to prevent subsequent changes altering the charge detail.

Charge rules are drill diameter specific, this means that a charge pattern needs to have the same diameter blast hole.
This is a safety requirement as minimum stemming for flyrock control is directly related to blast hole diameter.

Load, or Charge sheets define on a hole by hole basis how every individual hole in the blast pattern is to be loaded.

NONEL LP units are designed to provide in-hole delays for underground (non-coal) or special construction blasting applications that require long period delay times to improve relief (such as drift development, shaft raising/sinking, stope applications or tunnelling rounds). They are typically used with detonating cord.

LP detonators are designed to provide sufficient timing for blasted rock to be ejected from a parallel hole cut before the next hole fires.

The use of electric power from a mains power supply for firing explosive charges.

The explosive strength of a unit mass of an explosive material expressed against a standard reference.
Note: in this Code any reference to Mass Strength is with reference to TNT as the standard.

Of or pertaining to a large mass, much larger than normal.

A material safety data sheet (MSDS), or product safety data sheet (PSDS) is an important component of product stewardship and occupational safety and health. It is intended to provide workers and emergency personnel with procedures for handling or working with that substance in a safe manner, and includes information such as physical data (melting point, boiling point, flash point, etc.), toxicity, health effects, first aid, reactivity, storage, disposal, protective equipment, and spill-handling procedures. MSDS formats can vary from source to source within a country depending on national requirements.

The arithmetic average of a range of values.

The insulation resistance (IR) test (also commonly known as a Megger) is a spot insulation test which uses an applied DC voltage (typically either 250Vdc, 500Vdc or 1,000Vdc for low voltage equipment <600V and 2,500Vdc and 5,000Vdc for high voltage equipment) to measure insulation resistance in either kΩ, MΩ or GΩ

Meggers actively power circuits with high voltages and should never be used to test circuits containing electric detonators.

See also Multimeter

The maximum charge, in kilograms, initiated at any instant of time.

MIC is used to limit charge weight for ground vibration control.

The underlying assumption is that charges that are separated by a minimum time delay do not reinforce with regards to vibration and can be treated separately.

Whilst this assumption is known to be flawed it helps to understand how vibrations reinforce and cancel.

Due to some work carried out in the 1960's the minimum separation for charges to be considered independent for ground vibration is 8 milliseconds.

This is known as the 8 millisecond rule.

Maximum Instantaneous Charge (MIC) is calculated by blast software such as BlastPLAN-PRO

Term sometimes used where a pre-split firing is integrated with the adjacent dependent production blast.

1/1000th of a second

Delay detonator series with relatively short (commonly 25MS) delays between adjacent numbers.

MS Detonators are designed for in-hole use to initiate a primer and are generally of #12 / #8* strength which is a base charge of about 1 gram total.

A device incorporating a detonator delay arrangement used with detonating cord.

Signal tube device used to provide a delay in a detonating cord trunkline. Capable of firing in two directions.

The minimum primer is the explosives mass of a primer required to reliably initiate the product in question.

The minimum primer is related to sensitivity, the more sensitive an explosives the smaller the minimum primer.

Minimum primer may be specified in terms of detonator strength typically #12, #8, #6 or in terms of the mass of explosives (TNT or Pentolite) required for reliable detonation.

For example it could be stated for a certain bulk explosive in a 102mm diameter hole the minimum primer required is 150 grams of Pentolite.

A charge or part of a charge which has failed to explode or ignite.

A mobile unit (usually a vehicle) used for the manufacture of explosives.

A barricade intended to intercept horizontal and low angle debris from an explosion.

A multimeter is an electrical test instrument design to measure resistance, voltage and low levels of current (milliamps) in an electrical circuit.

Note: Standard multi meters can supply sufficent voltage to fire electric detonators and must not be used to test circuits containing detonators.

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (volt-ohm-milliammeter), is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter can measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multimeters use a microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings.

Multimeters should never be used to test the electrical properties of explosive circuits due to the potential for accidental initiation.

See also Megger tester

A criminal history check conducted on an applicant through the Police Service. This check covers all states and territories.

The comparative explosive strength of a product to a reference explosive such as ANFO or TNT.

The mass of explosive material contained in an explosive.

An explosion which occurs which is not as a consequence of some other cause which would be obvious to an observer in the vicinity.

Noise sensitive place means any of the following places –

(a) a dwelling;

(b) a library, childcare centre, kindergarten, school, college, university or other educational institution;

(c) a hospital, surgery or other medical institution;

(d) a protected area, or an area identified under a conservation plan as a critical habitat or an area of major interest, under the Nature Conservation Act 1992;

(e) a marine park under the Marine Parks Act 1982;

(f) a park or garden that is open to the public (whether or not on payment of money) for use other than for sport or organised entertainment.

A person (in addition to the licence holder) who is named in the SP and is responsible for managing the implementation of the SP. This person must hold an unsupervised handling licence.

A detonator incorporating a length of shock tube as a means of initiation.

Non-electric detonators in standard packaging are Class 1.1B

A non-ferrous material is one that does not contain iron in appreciable amounts.

Examples of non-ferrous materials used in explosives manufacture, storage and transport include:

Timber lining of magazines secured with copper or bronze nails.

Carry boxes on light vehicle carry boxes manuifactured from aluminium.

Gutta-Percha, a natural rubber, used in the manufacture of very sensitive primary explosives.

High temperature explosive used in well perforation

Nonex
The Nonex system has undergone extensive research and development in the UK and Spain. In the UK it has a niche market for particular use in slate mines where it is necessary to keep large slabs of the rock intact, and also for the breaking and removal of slate from within the mine shaft. The Nonex system consists of a cartridge which contains a propellant which when ignited produces high volumes of harmless gases such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide are released, providing a pressure increase when the cartridge is sealed in a drillhole. Nonex is particularly suited in situations where the rock is not required to be fractured, but rather, split as it does not cause the rock to shatter. Nonex is classified as a 1.4S pyrotechnic rather than as an explosive. This has a major impact on insurance premiums and they are much lower for sites which use Nonex exclusively over conventional explosives. The product is electrically initiated, and the ignition system is built in to the cartridge. The product is water resistant, which is another advantage over many conventional explosives.

The bell shaped symmetrical curve used in statistical analysis to generate the relative frequency of occurrence of natural events.

Detonator timing may be normally distributed at the average, although due to manufacturing it is more likely to be skewed to a shorter delay.

A multiple combinations of oxides of nitrogen (N2O, NO, NO2, N2O4, N2O3, N2O5) with nitrogen dioxide (NO2) being the principal hazardous nitrous gas.

Ohms is a measure of the electrical resistance of a circuit.

To calculate the resistance of a firing cable you need to know the length of the cable and the number of ohms per 100m.

Example if a firing cable is 1,600 meters long with a resistance of 1.4 ohms for every 100m the resistance is 16 x 1.4 = 22.4 ohms

The symbol for ohms is Ω

Operating Standards describe the process outcomes or end state after a transition.

The end state should usually be defined as a target and a tolerance.

For example an operating standard for charging explosives may be:

 - A minimum of 95% of holes are to be loaded to design kilograms +/- 10% and

 - All holes with less than the minimum stemming are to be recorded and reviewed in regards the planned clearance distance.

The operating standard does not define the steps to complete the process, rather it just defines the required outcomes.

Operating standards are appropriate when the outcomes are critical but the exact sequence to deliver this is not critical.

Detonating cord with an outer wrapping of spun yarns.

Overwrapped cord has a braided appearance and is easier to tie knots in.

Overwrapped cord.

Plastic finished cord.

High temperature detonating cords are limited by the explosives properties and the jacket material.

Chemically – the gain of oxygen by a molecule, atom or ion.

O2 Balance refers to the balance between the oxidiser and the fuel in an explosive.

Oxygen balanced explosives are mixed such that all the oxidiser and the fuel are used up in the detonation.

Where explosives are not O2 Balanced a reduction in energy and an increase in blast fume are likely outcomes.

Explosives that is pre packaged into plastic, card or paper tubes.

Two or more (straight) lines, (flat) surfaces equally distant from one another at all points.

The PCF tube is a hollow plastic tube, open at one end which can then be filled with the powdered smokeless propellant and then closed with a small cap. The other end is machined into a wedge to lock into the stemming, and to seal the hole when inserted for ignition. In the cap there is an entry port for insertion of an electric match, which is the means of detonation. This heat ignites the propellant. As there are not the crushing effects of compressive breakage as with explosives, dust and fines are significantly reduced. As the rock requires less energy to break in tension than compression, a much smaller energy input is recquired. A 200 g charge of PCF blasts the same volume of rock as does 1.2 kg of explosive charge, whilst releasing one tenth of the energy. The product has been found to be particularly useful in deep South African mines as it’s low toxicity reduces re-entry time in these hard to ventilate mines thus improving productivity by up to 40 % (Minesite News, 2000). Some gas is produced from the combustion of the cartridge, for PCF, the majority of the gases produced are carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The main problem gases which are detectable are carbon monoxide, and nitrous oxide which also occurs at low levels. The addition of a very small amount of ANFO prill does increase the toxic fumes from the product, but still below minimal levels in modern ventilation systems. This gives the product a little extra power to fragment the rock. The product also has the ability to enable users to have more control over the accuracy of the excavation profile and drive perimeters. PCF has also been used in floor stripping, back stripping and side wall stripping in a number of mines in Australia, particularly when a larger equipment size is required and minimal disruption to underground operations is essential. By altering the position of the charges in the holes the products flexibility allows for the rock to be fractured or split. PCF can also be used for the clearing of block grizzlies, crushers or chutes, or anywhere else where oversize is a problem.
The classification for PCF is 1.4S pyrotechnic, as an added safety precaution, the electric match used for detonation is inserted right before firing.

The rate at which a particle of ground is moving, i.e. a measure of ground vibration, in millimetres per second.

Pentolite is a high explosive used for military and civilian purposes e.g. warheads and booster charges.

Military pentolite comprises a mixture of 50% PETN and 50% TNT. A 50:50 mixture has a density of 1.65 g/cm3 and a detonation velocity of 7400 m/s. Civilian pentolite sometimes contains a lower percentage of PETN. Civilian pentolite has a detonation velocity of approximately 7,800 metres per second.

A perforating charge is a type of shaped charge used in the well industry to perforate casings and allow fluids to flow into the well.

A perforating charge is assembled from four components: case, main explosive pellet, primer, and liner.

When the explosives detonated the metal liner collapses into a high speed jet that perforated the well lining.

A perforation in the context of oil wells refers to a hole punched in the casing or liner of an oil well to connect it to the reservoir. In cased hole completions, the well will be drilled down past the section of the formation desired for production and will have casing or a liner run in separating the formation from the well bore. The final stage of the completion will involve running in perforating guns, a string of shaped charges, down to the desired depth and firing them to perforate the casing or liner. A typical perforating gun can carry many dozens of charges.

 Commonly, perforation guns are run on E-line as it is traditional to use electrical signals from the surface to fire the guns.

A perforation in the context of water, oil and gas wells refers to a hole punched in the casing or liner of an oil well to connect it to the reservoir. In cased hole completions, the well will be drilled down past the section of the formation desired for production and will have casing or a liner run in separating the formation from the well bore. The final stage of the completion will involve running in perforating guns, a string of shaped charges, down to the desired depth and firing them to perforate the casing or liner. A typical perforating gun can carry many dozens of charges.

Commonly, perforation guns are run on E-line as it is traditional to use electrical signals from the surface to fire the guns. In more highly deviated wells, coiled tubing may be used. Newer technologies allow the guns to be run on slickline. Modern slickline technology embeds fiber optic lines that can transmit two-way data on real-time temperature, pressure and seismic responses along the length of the slickline. This information allows very precise operations of various down hole tools, including perforation guns.

The benefit of this strategy is greater deal of control of the well. Casing the bottom of the hole allows the well to be completed without having to worry about reservoir fluids. It also allows precise selection of where in the formation production will be and to be able to seal off perforations, which are no longer useful or counterproductive, through cementing or straddling.

The disadvantage is that perforating can lead to "skin damage", where debris from the perforations can hinder productivity of the well. In order to mitigate this, perforating is commonly done underbalanced (lower pressure in the well bore than in the formation) as the higher well bore pressure will cause a surge of fluids into the well at the point of perforating, hopefully carrying the debris with it. Other methods of stimulation such as acidising and proppant fracturing are often required to overcome this damage and bring the well up to its full potential.

Casing and perforating as a method of completion is common place nowadays, though in some unconsolidated formations, prone to production of sand ( BP Harding as an example), open hole completions, using only sandscreens, may be the preferred choice.

Oil Well Perforation may be basically classified in two types a) Over-balanced Perforating and b) Under-balanced Perforating. Overbalanced perforating is normally carried out with the help of Perforating Guns or Hollow carriers. In Over -balanced Perforation the weight of the Well-bore Column is more than the Reservoir Pressure, thus it normally, ensures that the Well does not start flowing oil or Gas immediately after Perforation. However, it may have the effect of damaging the formation due to forced entry of well-bore fluid (mud) into the reservoir.

The techniques involving drill holes around or on the perimeter of an excavation, generally closely spaced, with the purpose of providing a predetermined face.

A decoupled packaged explosive often traced with detonating cord for presplit and smoothwall blasting in hole diameters between 32mm and 127mm diameter.

Items of clothing or devices worn to protect an individual from the actual or potential risks to health or safety arising from an activity or process.

PETN is a white powder and is one of the most powerful high explosives known, with a relative effectiveness factor of 1.66. In commercial explosives PETN is used as the base charge of detonators, the explosives core of most detonating cords and in cast Pentolite boosters.

PETN is impact sensitive.

 PETN mixed with a plasticizer forms a plastic explosive.

•  Pentaerithritrol a high explosive. Commonly used in detonating cord.
• Tetranitrate as the base charge in detonators.

A plain detonator consists of an open aluminium shell and a primary and base charge.

The primary charge is generally ASA, Lead Azide, Lead Styphnate and Aluminium a mixture very sensitive to F.I.S.H.

Plain detonators are crimped onto safety fuse to provide a delay detonator.

The presence of exposed primary explosives increase the risk of accidental initiation.

Plane failures in rock slopes occur when a geological discontinuity strikes parallel or nearly parallel to the slope face and dips at an angle greater than the angle of internal friction. Unlike a wedge failure only a single sliding joint is involved.

The breaking of rocks or other materials by firing charges that have been placed against them and that have been confined by mud or clay.

Of material – that which will deform before breaking.

A security assessment in respect of a person, issued by Australian Security and Intelligence Organisation (ASIO). This is an ongoing check that is updated if there is a change in status.

Gases generated by the detonation of explosives during blasting.

A location that could be the source of an explosion.

Powder Factor is generally the kg of explosives loaded divided by the cubic metres or tonnes of rock broken.

PF = Explosives (kg) / Rock Volume (m³)

Powder factor can be calculated for a range of scenarios as follows:

There is also a Target Powder Factor defined. This is generally derived from the planning process based on budget constraints.

Note that some sites use kg/tonne instead of kg/m³.

A method of controlled blasting in which the line holes are fired prior to the main charge to create a crack to prevent disturbance beyond the final batter line.

Precursor - A material consisting of fuels and oxidisers that are mixed and where the material is intended to be used exclusively in the production of an explosive. In order for such substances to be categorised as a precursor, evidence shall be produced demonstrating that the substance cannot cook-off leading to a mass violent reaction.

An example of an explosives precursor is ungassed emulsion.

As precursors can be shown not to detonate they are generally classed as 5.1 Oxidising Agents and not as a 1.1D explosive.

To change a 5.1 precursor into an 1.1D explosive a sensitiser must be added. This is generally in the form of nitrogen bubbles (gassing) which will reduce the density to below 1.3 g/cc.

An explosive, sensitive to spark, flame, impact or friction, used in a detonator to initiate the explosion.

A booster or cartridge carrying a detonator or coupled to a detonating cord by which the remainder of the charge is detonated

Primer made up using cast booster

Primer using small diameter packaged explosives

A primed hole - the first primer is loaded, the second is still at the collar.

A building on premises licensed for the manufacture or storage of explosives, other than for immediate use, in which any explosive is manufactured or any ingredient of explosive is used in a manufacturing process.

Benefits of process mapping

Process mapping spotlights waste, streamlines work processes and builds understanding. Process mapping allows you to visually communicate the important details of a process rather than writing extensive directions.

Specific benefits include:

• Enables understanding of the process. Without understanding attempts at improvement will have random outcomes.

• Complexity of processes and lack of understanding constrains management’s attempts to improve processes

• Analytical skills and process mapping skills allow us to understand and communicate processes to management, staff and users

• Identification of efficiency issues and where systems can support these.

• Enables concise and consistent documentation to be developed. Includes procedures, work instructions, standards and training systems.

A process step in a process generally refers to a change or transition.

Process steps are triggered by an input and deliver an output different to the input (the transition). Often there is a feedback loop to trigger the process again if the output does not meet a specific standard.

Class A: Public street, road or thoroughfare, railway, navigable waterway, dock, wharf, pier or jetty, marketplace, public recreation and sports ground or other open place where the public is accustomed to assemble, open place of work in another occupancy, river-wall, seawall, reservoir, water main (above ground), radio or television transmitter, main electrical substation, private road which is the principal means of access to a church, chapel, college, school, hospital or factory.

Class B: Dwelling house, public building, church, chapel, college, school, hospital, theatre, cinema or other building or structure where the public is accustomed to assemble, shop, factory, warehouse, store, building in which any person is employed in any trade or business, depot for the keeping of flammable or dangerous goods, major dam.

An ANE pump incident which involves sufficient overheating to be observed by pump operators (e.g. very hot pump body, visible smoke), or which causes the operation of a temperature protective element (temperature trip or thermofuse).

A substance or mixture of substances which will burn without relying on oxygen from external sources to sustain the reaction. Used as detonator delay train compounds.

Austin Powder make Shock*Star Quick-Relay Connectors that are designed for the initiation of other shock tube detonators as a delay between holes or decks within a hole.

RDX also known as cyclonite or hexogen has a chemical name cyclotrimethylene trinitramine, a military explosive used as the coreload as high temperature detonating cords and substituted for PETN in some boosters.

RDX has a velocity of detonation of over 8500 meters per second.

RDX is less sensitive to temperature effects than PETN and slightly less impact sensitive.

RDX stands for Research Department eXplosive or Royal Demolition eXplosives (no-one really knows..)

When mixed with an inert binder RDX is the basis of a number of other military based explosives:

• RDX + Wax = Composition A
• RDX + TNT = Composition B
• RDX + Plasticiser = Composition C

In relation to the reaction of substances, to react in a manner that directly creates a hazard due to the reaction:
(a) being violent; or
(b) producing an explosion; or
(c) producing a potentially explosive combination of products; or
(d) producing potentially dangerous quantities of toxic vapour or gas.

Reactive ground is rock that undergoes a spontaneous exothermic reaction after it comes into contact with nitrates. The reaction of concern involves the chemical oxidation of sulphides (usually of iron or copper) by nitrates and the liberation of potentially large amounts of heat. The process is unpredictable and can be so violent that it results in mass explosions.

A term used to describe the re-entry of water back into a blast hole after it has been dewatered.

A 'red hat' or 'red cap' is a common name for a plastic plug used to block off a drill hole.

Short holes are often identified when measuring a pattern of drill holes for depth (dipping).

Where the number of short holes is excessive it may be necessary to drill new holes close to the original short hole.

(The alternative is to run the drill back down the original hole but this us not common practice owing to misalignment issues)

The new holes are called 'redrills' and the original short holes are abandoned.

Redrills are often identified with a specific naming convention. Here is it _RD.

Redrills and abandoned holes should be shown on the charge plans to ensure

• redrilled holes for loading are properly identified
• short holes that are redrilled are not loaded
• abandoned holes are properly identified for backfilling
• abandoned holes out of position are not loaded.

Drill pattern showing abandoned holes (K243, K202) and redrill holes (K243_RD, K202_RD)

Are training providers delivering training courses accredited by the State or National Vocational Education and Training (VET) regulator. RTOs conduct Workplace Health and Safety courses and other industry related training.

The authority in each State or Territory of Australia charged with the administration of the acts or regulations of that State or Territory concerned with the control and regulation of explosives.

Relative effectiveness factor or R.E. factor is a measurement of an explosive's power for military demolitions purposes. It is used to compare an explosive's effectiveness relative to TNT by weight only, TNT equivalent/kg (TNTe/kg). This enables engineers to substitute one explosive for another when they are calculating blasting equations that are designed for TNT. For example, if a timber cutting charge requires 1 kg of TNT to work, it would take 0.42 kg of ONC, 0.6 kg of PETN, 1.25 kg of ANFO, or 2.22 kg of AN to have the same effect.

A hole drilled in close proximity to a hole containing a misfire, which when fired will either sympathetically initiate or dislodge the explosives in the misfired hole.

A container constructed in accordance with AS 2187.1 used to store limited amounts of explosives which can be relocated from site-to-site either as an integral unit or as modular components for reassembly. Includes converted freight containers.

A situation, usually an explosives incident, that is of sufficient severity that reporting to the regulator is compulsory.

A resistorised bridge detonator is a device with a resistor in series with the electric fusehead designed to manage the no-fire and all fire currents.

Highly directional stem / material ejection from a firing blasthole.

This unit describes a participant’s skills and knowledge required to support shot firing operations in Civil construction, Coal mining, Metalliferous mining (Surface), Drilling and Extractive.

This unit is appropriate for those working in operational roles.

No licensing, legislation or certification requirements apply to this unit at the time of publication.

This unit describes a participant’s skills and knowledge required to store, handle and transport explosives in the Resources and Infrastructure Industries.

This unit is appropriate for those working in operational roles.

No licensing, legislation or certification requirements apply to this unit at the time of publication.

This unit describes a participant’s skills and knowledge required to conduct surface shotfiring  operations in the Resources and Infrastructure Industries.

This unit is appropriate for those working in operational roles.

No licensing, legislation or certification requirements apply to this unit at the time of publication

This unit describes a participant’s skills and knowledge required to conduct secondary blasting in the Metalliferous and Coal mining and Extractive.

This unit is appropriate for those working in operational roles.

No licensing, legislation or certification requirements apply to this unit at the time of publication.

RIOBOOSTERS are high energy explosives designed to produce high velocity of detonation and high
detonation pressure, ensuring reliable initiation of bulk and cartridge explosives such as RIOFLEX, RIOMEX,

RIOCORD is a flexible detonating cord with a core made of an explosive material (PETN). RIOCORD detonates at an approximate speed of 7,500 m/s.

RIOFLEX MX 10000 is a mechanically sensitised high energy bulk explosive suitable for most mine and quarry applications. RIOFLEX MX 10000 is a higher
energy product compared to emulsion based products due to its lower water content. RIOFLEX MX 10000 maximises energy yields, making the product
an ideal solution for optimising rock fragmentation diggability.

RIOGEL TRONER XE is a high strength, high density cap sensitive watergel. The gel structure gives the product a rubber-like tough consistency and  outstanding water resistance.

The RIONEL MS series has been designed for use as a down-the-hole detonator in standard blasting scenarios. RIONEL MS are manufactured in a series of varying delay timings and when used in combination with RIONEL SCX surface connectors, offer a multitude of initiation sequence options. RIONEL MS are highly accurate delays that reduce risk of timing overlap.

1. Shock tube with 3 layers coiled in a “figure 80” configuration which eases deployment and avoids tangles.
2. #8 strength Detonator fitted with a double crimp.
3. The fastening band is easy to break manually in order to achieve a quicker loading operation.
4. Water resistant label which includes Delay Period, Timing, Length and Lot Number.

The Rionel SCE is a non-electric Surface Connector capable of firing up to eight tubes.

All tubes must be fully inserted for reliable initiation.

The systematic application of management policies, procedures and practices to the tasks of :
a. Hazard Identification (What can go wrong and why?).
b. Risk Analysis - Comparing the anticipated risks of intervention with the risks of no intervention result (How bad and how likely is it?).
c. Risk Assessment - A systematic process for the identification, analysis and evaluation of a substance, thing or happening (hazard) that may under different circumstance lead to an accidental loss or security breach (How acceptable is it?).
d. Risk Control (What can we do about it?).

Rock fall failure refers to quantities of rock falling freely from a cliff face. A rockfall is a fragment of rock (a block) detached by sliding, toppling, or falling, that falls along a vertical or sub-vertical cliff, proceeds down slope by bouncing and flying along ballistic trajectories or by rolling on talus or debris slopes. Alternatively, a "rockfall is the natural downward motion of a detached block or series of blocks with a small volume involving free falling, bouncing, rolling, and sliding".

Noise / air blast caused by the displacement of a large amount of air as the face rock mass swells and is thrown out.

Noise / air blast caused by the venting of high pressure blast gases through the face.

Toppling failure occurs where columns or blocks of rock topple or rotate about a fixed base.

Rotational failure occur along a surface of ruprure that is curved and concave.

Rotational filure may be on a single plane

or multiple planes

A line of blast holes parallel to a face.

Slapper Actuated Firing Equipment (S.A.F.E.)

The S.A.F.E. detonating mechanism is an exploding foil initiator with increased resistance to stray voltages of up to 40 volts between the rig and the casing

S.M.A.R.T. is an acronym for

• Specific
• Measurable
• Achievable
• Relevant
• Timely

S – SPECIFIC

A goal should be precisely defined, and mustn’t be vague or ambiguous. Make it as precise as possible:

• Who needs to be involved, in order to achieve this goal?
• How can you encourage this person to collaborate?
• What do you want to achieve? And how will you know that the objective has been achieved?
• When do you want to achieve my goal? What is the exact due date, and why?
• Which capabilities are needed? And which challenges do you need to overcome?
• Why should you achieve the goal?
• Where do you want to achieve your goal? (An answer to this question isn’t always necessary.)

M – MEASURABLE

Goals need to be measurable. Hence, you need to decide about the metrics you want to use for measuring your objectives.

• How can you measure progress?
• And how do you know if you’ve successfully met your goal?

A – ACHIEVABLE

You should be able to achieve your goal within the given time frame. Don’t neglect the encouraging aspect of reaching a goal.

An objective can be ambitious, but keep in mind that not achieving your goal can damage your motivation. Hence, it makes sense to link it with your abilities and competencies.

If you think that you can’t achieve a certain goal, think about your missing skills.

• Are you capable of achieving the goal?
• Do you have the needed skills? If you don’t, how can you acquire them?

R – RELEVANT

A SMART goal should have a direct influence on your overall business goals. If there is no connection between them, consider reviewing the goal again. Chances are that it isn’t relevant enough, so you should aim for something else.

• Why should you achieve this goal?
• What is the impact of achieving the goal?
• How does the goal relate to your overall team and company goals?

T – TIMELY

It’s important to determine a due date for each of your SMART goals. You need to derive suitable tasks, which will help you reach a certain goal. To determine the due date of the overall SMART goal, you need to sum up the estimated time it will take to finish all of the derived tasks.

• What tasks need to be finished to achieve the goal?
• How long does it take to finish these tasks?
• When is the due date for your goal?
• Can the goal be achieved before this date?

A Safe Work Instruction (SWI), Safe Operating Instruction (SOI) or Safe Work Method Statement (SWMS) is a process control that describes the step by step tasks required to complete a process.

Note that these types of process controls generally apply to standalone processes.

The elements of a standard SWI (in addition to title and scope) are:

 - Specific Hazards. Note that for clarity and ease of reading only the task specific hazards should be defined. For example a SWI for changing a drill string would include the hazard of rotating drill strings but not the hazard of heat exhaustion..

 - Conditions prior to activity (the trigger or start state). For example the preconditions required for drilling would include a drill plan on the drill, a handed over drill bench and authorisation from the Superintendent to commence driling.

 - Startup. How to start the activity. Includes pre-starting equipment, prestart checks etc.

 - Normal operations. What the process is when things happen according to plan.

 - Abnormal operations and recovery. What happens when things go wrong and how to make the process come back into line. Note that any check identified in the SWI indicates the potential for abnormal operation and must then define the indicators of this and the means to bring the process back under control. For example abnormal drilling would include lost drill strings and fishing techniques.

 - Shutdown. How to safely shutdown the activity. May include equipment shutdown, demarcation, communication etc.

 - End State. The the process has delivered. For example the drilling process delivers holes drilled to depth.

Refer Material Safety Data Sheet.